Six Dimensions of National Culture

In the field of cross-cultural psychology, Dimensionalizing Cultures by Hofstede is still one of the most widely accepted and cited papers, even though his first paper about dimensionalizing cultures was published back in 1988. His research began when he accepted a position at IBM as a manager of personnel research, where he later founded and managed the Personnel Research Department.

In this role, he collected employee opinion surveys in over 70 national subsidiaries of IBM around the world, which eventually included over 100,000 questionnaires. This repository of questionnaires represented the largest cross-national database in existence, where he discovered significant differences between cultures in other countries. Hofstede was able to use this data to both support and contribute to pre-existing research in this field, which eventually led to the creation of six dimensions separating national culture:

Dimensions:

1. Collectivism (versus Individualism)
2. High Power Distance (versus Low Power Distance)
3. Masculinity (versus Femininity)
4. High Uncertainty Avoidance (versus Low Uncertainty Avoidance)
5. Long-Term Orientation (versus Short-Term Orientation)
6. High Indulgance (versus Low Indulgance)

At a high-level, collectivism is related to the integration of individuals into primary groups within a nation. Collectivism is arguably one of the most important axis within the six dimensions separating national culture. Additionally, power distance is related to how much less powerful members of a culture accept that power is distributed unequally. Also, masculinity is related to the division of emotional roles between women and men. Next, uncertainty avoidance is related to the level of stress that is created in a society when faced with an unknown future. Long-term orientation is related to whether a culture's efforts are more focused on the future or the present/past. Lastly, indulgence relates to the gratification of basic human desires related to enjoying life.

In general, wealthier nations are correlated with having a smaller power distance and being more individualistic. Additionally, recent economic growth has been correlated with long-term oriented countries. In his research, Triandis found that uncertainty accepting countries are slightly correlated with individualistic countries. More femanine countries tend to have a smaller power distance as countries become more and more femanine. As expected, more individualistic countries have a smaller power distance. Interestingly, there is almost no correlation between countries being masculine and countries being individualistic. Indulgant countries tend to be short-term oriented countries as well.

Most of the research for this post was motivated by a Freakonomics' Podcast about Hofstede's model, which is definitely worth a listen. For a more detailed analysis about these $6$ features, refer to Hofstede's paper about Dimensionalizing Cultures.

Illustrating the Axis for Collectivism

In 1995, Harry Triandis wrote a book titled Individualism and Collectivism, examining the influences of culture and social behaviors. At the time, Triandis' research focused on the aspects of different cultural values, and now he is considered a pioneer of cross-cultural psychology.

In this book, he frames individualism and collectivism as a single scale, which is illustrated in this paper. Essentially, collectivism is a spectrum representing the extent to which someone's personal identity is defined in terms of personal characteristics. Said another way, it's a spectrum representing the extent to which someone's personal identity is defined in terms of the characteristics of their group. An individualist just refers to someone who is relatively low on this spectrum; whereas a collectivist just refers to someone who is relatively high on this spectrum. In most cases, a person lies somewhere in the middle of this spectrum and isn't just considered one or the other. In other words, most people aren't strictly considered an individualist or a collectivist. Instead, they either lean more towards to being an individualist or a collectivist.

Keep in mind, we're all part of many different groups, including family, company, sports team, political party, country, etc. So, we'll most likely be situated at different points on this spectrum depending on the particular group we're referencing. For example, we may prefer to have more collectivistic values within our family, but we may prefer to have more individualistic values within our company.

Regardless of where someone is situated along this spectrum, both collectivists and individualists are motivated by the preferences, needs, and rights of the entity that they personally identify with. Since collectivists identify more with their collective group, they they are more motivated by the preferences, needs, and rights of their collective group. Since individualists don't identify with their collective group, then they are more motivated by their own preferences, needs, and rights.

On a similar note, both collectivists and individualists prioritize the goals of the entity that they personally identify with. Since collectivists identify more with their collective group, then they prioritize the goals of their collective group. Since individualists don't really identify with their collective group, then they prioritize their own goals.

At a high-level, collectivists refer to closely linked individuals who view themselves primarily as part of a group (or collective entity). Implying, an individual's decision is usually based on what is best for their group. Whereas, individualists refer to more self-interested individuals who view themselves as an independent entity, rathar than part of a whole. Meaning, an individual's decision is usually based on what is best for themselves.

So far, we've looked at a few effects of having an individualistic versus a collectivistic culture, but let's look at a few more. In an individualistic culture, people are expected to look after themselves and even their immediate family. On the other hand, a collectivistic culture has people who are expected to look after themselves, their immediate family, and their extended family with unquestioning loyalty.

Additionally, an individualistic culture tends to promote a right of privacy. An individualistic culture also expects individuals to have their own personal opinion, and they believe that speaking one's mind is healthy. Alternatively, a collectivistic culture tends to experience stress about belonging to a group or their culture. A collectivistic culture also believes harmony should always be maintained, rather than speaking one's mind.

Typically, collectivism prevails in less developed and Eastern countries, whereas individualism tends to prevail in more developed and Western countries. Specifically, the United States of America is ranked as the highest collectivism index. For more detailed examples about collectivistic and individualistic cultures, refer to Hofstede's Paper about Dimensionalizing Culture. The graphic below refers to a basic map illustrating Hosfstede's collectivism scores for each country, which can also be found in this article. An interactive animation can also be found here, which illustrates each score using an animation of a globe.

Illustrating the Axis for Power Distance

Power distance is defined as how much the less powerful members of a culture accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. For example, a family typically has a higher level of power distance, since children and parents expect the the parents to have a higher level of power and children to have a lower level of power. It suggests that a culture's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality ultimately depend on the expectation of inequality by the followers. In almost every culture or society, there is at least some level of inequality of power, but some are more unequal than others.

In a culture with a smaller power distance, power only should be be used in a few, more legitimate scenarios, whereas power is thought to be a basic fact of life and its legitimacy is irrelevant in a culture with a higher power distance. To illustrate societies and cultures with a smaller power distance in greater detail, the following are a few examples of norms practiced in societies with a smaller power distance:

• Parents commonly treat children as equals
• Older people aren't outright respected or disrespected for their age
• Education is centered around a teacher-enforced curriculum
• Income distribution is meant to be even
• Religions emphasize an equality amongst believers
• Corruption is rare and scandals typically end political careers
• Governments are pluralists and based on majority rule to make peaceful changes

A society or culture with a larger power distance has conflicting standards. Alternatively, the following are a few examples of norms practiced in societies with a larger power distance:

• Parents teach children to be obedient, especially to their elders
• Older people are respected by younger people
• Education is centered around a collaboration amongst students
• Income distribution is more uneven
• Religions emphasize a hierarchy of priests
• Corruption is more frequent and scandals tend to be covered up
• Governments are autocratic and changed by revolution

In general, East European, Latin, Asian, and African countries have a higher power distance index, whereas Germanic and English-speaking Western countries have a lower power distance index. Specifically, the United States of America is ranked on the lower end of power distance indices. Refer to Hofstede's Book about Cultures and Organizations for more detailed examples about high and low power distance cultures.

Illustrating the Axis for Masculinity

Masculine cultures usually uphold values like assertiveness and competition. Alternatively, feminine cultures uphold values such as modesty and kindness. Interestingly, women's values differ less, regardless of whether the society is feminine or masculine. On the other hand, men's values can sway much more depending on their cultural identity.

For example, the women in feminine societies are quite modest and caring. In masculine societies, they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the male population. Whereas, the men tend to be quite modest and caring in feminine societies, and they tend to be quite competitive and ambitious in masculine societies. Cultures that are more masculine tend to have the following traits:

• Large differences of social and emotional roles between genders
• Men should be assertive and ambitious
• Women can be assertive and ambitious
• Work takes a higher priority than family
• Strength is an admirable quality
• Fathers tend to deal with logistics and facts
• Mothers deal with emotions and relationships
• Women shouldn't fight physically, but men may fight physically
• Women cry, whereas men don't cry
• Fathers decide on the family size

Notice, the qualities found in a masculine culture tend to be synonymous with assertive and competitive values. These values in a masculine culture are often taboo, implying these values are deeply rooted, an unconscious part of a culture mostly, and rarely talked about. Feminine cultures don't tend to have such taboos, and they tend to have the following traits:

• Small differences of social and emotional roles between genders
• Men and women should be modest and caring
• There is a balance between work and family
• There is sympathy for the weaker part of society
• Both fathers and mothers deal with facts and feelings
• Both men and women may cry, but neither should fight
• Mothers decide on number of children

In general, masculine cultures include Japan, German-speaking countries, and some Latin countries, such as Italy and Mexico. English-speaking western countries tend to have a moderately high masculinity index as well. Conversely, Nordic countries, the Netherlands, and some Latin and Asian countries, such as France, Spain, and Korea, have a low masculinity index. The United States of America is fairly masculine, since it's masculinity score is in the top 20 of all ranked countries. Refer to Hofstede's Book about Cultures and Organizations for more detailed examples about high and low masculine cultures.

Illustrating the Axis for Uncertainty Avoidance

Societies that avoid uncertainty feel uncomfortable in unstructured situations, where they have less control over the situation. Specifically, uncertainty avoidance indicates the extent to which a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Usually, unstructured situations just refer to any unknown situation that is different than the usual situation some person is comfortable with. Someone in a culture with high uncertainty avoidance is not as willing to step outside of his or her comfort zone, whereas someone in a culture with low uncertainty avoidance is more willing to step outside of his or her comfort zone. Specifically, a culture with high uncertainty avoidance has the following traits:

• Uncertainty in life is thought of as a continuous threat
• Uncertainty in life should be avoided
• There is higher stress, anxiety, and emotion
• They are less healthy subjectively
• Different ideas are less tolerable and dangerous
• There is a need for structure
• There is a search for guidance
• They stay in jobs, even if a job is disliked
• There is an emotional need for rules
• Religions are used to find ultimate truths and grand theories

Interestingly, uncertainty avoiding cultures are more emotional and motivated by inner nervous energy. On the other hand, uncertainty accepting cultures are more tolerant of different opinions and ideas. Uncertainty accepting cultures have the following traits:

• They believe uncertainty is an inherent part of life
• Uncertainty should be accepted and welcomed
• They maintain higher levels of self-control and ease
• They maintain lower levels of anxiety and stress
• They are tolerant of new ideas and opinions
• They are comfortable with ambiguity
• They don't require known answers from guidance
• Changing a jobs isn't a problem
• There is a dislike of written and subliminal rules

Generally, east and central American countries tend to have a higher uncertainty avoidance index. On the other hand, Chinese and English-speaking cultures tend to have a lower uncertainty avoidance index. Specifically, the United States is on the tail end of the uncertainty avoiding countries. Meaning, the US tends to accept uncertainty compared to other countries. Refer to Hofstede's Book about Cultures and Organizations for more detailed examples about uncertainty avoiding and accepting cultures.

Illustrating the Axis for Short-Term Orientation

Long-term oriented societies emphasize long-term thinking and investments, whereas short-term oriented societies emphasize short-term thinking and enjoyment. Long-term oriented cultures maintain values, such as perseverance, thrift, ordering relationships by status, and having a sense of shame. On the other hand, short-term oriented cultures uphold, such as respect for tradition, reciprocating social obligations, and personal steadiness and stability. The following are traits in a long-term oriented society:

• They believe the most important events in life will occur in the future
• A good person adapts to mixed circumstances
• Knowing what's right and wrong depends on the scenario
• Traditions are adaptable to changing circumstances
• Perseverance is an important goal
• Large savings are available for investment
• Students believe effort leads to success
• Economic growth is fast

On the other hand, short-term oriented cultures have the following traits:

• The most important events in life happen now
• A good person will always be good
• There are universal guidelines outlining what is good and evil
• Traditions are sacrosanct
• Family life is guided by imperatives
• They're supposed to be proud of one's country
• Service to others is an important goal
• Students attribute success and failure to luck
• Economic growth is slow

Long-term oriented countries include some Asian countries and central European countries, whereas short-term oriented countries include Middle Eastern and African countries. Specifically, the United States of America leans more towards being a short-term oriented country, with a long-term oriented index in the bottom 20 countries. Refer to Hofstede's Book about Cultures and Organizations for more detailed examples about long-term and short-term oriented cultures.

Illustrating the Axis for Indulgance

Roughly, indulgant societies represent societies that allow relatively free gratification of natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. Alternatively, restrained societies regulate the level of gratification by means of deep-rooted social norms. The following are traits in an indulgant society:

• Many people declare themselves as happy
• There is a higher importance of leisure
• They're more likely to remember positive emotions
• Indulgant societies usually have more educated populations
• There are more people actively involved in sports
• More obese people when there is enough food
• There are lenient sexual norms in wealthier areas
• Maintaining societal order is not a priority

On the other hand, restrained cultures have the following traits:

• There are fewer people who are very happy
• There is a perception of helplessness
• Freedom of speech is not a primary concern
• There is a lower importance of leisure
• They are less likely to remember positive emotions
• Fewer people are actively involved in sports
• Not many obese people when there is enough food
• There are stricter sexual norms in wealtheir areas
• Higher number of police officers

In general, European and South American countries are more indulgant compared to other countries. On the other hand, central European countries are less indulgant compared to other countries. Specifically, the United State is ranked in the top 20 most indulgant countries. Refer to Hofstede's Book about Cultures and Organizations for more detailed examples about restrained and indulgant cultures.